magazinelogo

Plant Physiology and Ecology

ISSN Online: 3066-5531 CODEN:
Frequency: Instant publication Email: PPE@hillpublish.com
Total View: 89574 Downloads: 5109 Citations: 1 (From Dimensions)
ArticleOpen Access http://dx.doi.org/10.26855/ppe.2025.06.002

Advancements in Ochratoxin-A Mitigation: Occurrence, Toxicity, and Innovative Decontamination Strategies for Food Safety

Rahim Khan*, Suhaimi Ab. Rahman

Halal Products Research Institute, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor 43300, Malaysia.

*Corresponding author: Rahim Khan


Published: July 18,2025

Abstract

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin produced by filamentous fungi, poses signifi-cant risks to global food safety due to its nephrotoxic effects, and thermal stabil-ity. Its persistence, with a 35-day lifespan, exacerbates these risks, particularly in cereals and processed products stored under favorable conditions. Environmental factors and widespread exposure underscore the need for effective mitigation strategies. This review explores various methods to reduce OTA contamination, including physical, chemical, and biological decontamination methods like irra-diation, cold plasma (CP), adsorbents, ozone (O3), and microorganisms. These methods are thoroughly evaluated for their effectiveness, safety, nutritional val-ue, and sensory attributes, with biological methods being the most promising. Moreover, it discusses innovative strategies for reducing OTA levels (baking soda and sugar), the effects of thermal and non-thermal food processing techniques, and the health implications of residual OTA and its breakdown products.

Keywords

OTA; Health implications; Gamma irradiation; Cold plasma; Ozone; Adsorbents; Yeasts; Essential oils; Food additives

References

[1] Pallarés N, Berrada H, Tolosa J, Ferrer E. Effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HPP) and pulsed electric field (PEF) technologies on reduction of aflatoxins in fruit juices. LWT. 2021;142:111000.
[2] El Khoury A, Atoui A. Ochratoxin A: general overview and actual molecular status. Toxins. 2010;2(4):461-93.
[3] Malir F, Ostry V, Novotna E. Toxicity of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A in the light of recent data. Toxin Rev. 2013;32(2):19-33.
[4] Khan R, Ghazali FM, Mahyudin NA, Samsudin NIP. Aflatoxin biosynthesis, genetic regulation, toxicity, and control strategies: a review. J Fungi. 2021;7(8):606.
[5] Khaneghah AM, Moosavi MH, Oliveira CA, Vanin F, Sant'Ana AS. Electron beam irradiation to reduce the mycotoxin and micro-bial contaminations of cereal-based products: an overview. Food Chem Toxicol. 2020;143:111557.
[6] Khan R, Anwar F, Ghazali FM. A comprehensive review of mycotoxins: toxicology, detection, and effective mitigation approaches. Heliyon. 2024;10(8):e28361.
[7] Khan R. Mycotoxins in food: occurrence, health implications, and control strategies-A comprehensive review. Toxicon. 2024;248:108038.
[8] Liu WC, Pushparaj K, Meyyazhagan A, et al. Ochratoxin A as an alarming health threat for livestock and human: a review on mo-lecular interactions, mechanism of toxicity, detection, detoxification, and dietary prophylaxis. Toxicon. 2022;213:59-75.
[9] EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM), Schrenk D, Bodin L, et al. Risk assessment of ochratoxin A in food. EFSA J. 2020;18(5):e06113.
[10] Eskola M, Kos G, Elliott CT, Hajšlová J, Mayar S, Krska R. Worldwide contamination of food crops with mycotoxins: validity of the widely cited FAO estimate of 25%. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2020;60(16):2773-89.
[11] Scottt P, Kanhere S, Lau BY, et al. Survey of Canadian human blood plasma for ochratoxin A. Food Addit Contam. 1998;15(5):555-62.
[12] Studer-Rohr I, Schlatter J, Dietrich DR. Kinetic parameters and intraindividual fluctuations of ochratoxin A plasma levels in hu-mans. Arch Toxicol. 2000;74:499-510.
[13] Tola M, Kebede B. Occurrence, importance, and control of mycotoxins: a review. Cogent Food Agric. 2016;2(1):1191103.
[14] Wang L, Hua X, Shi J, et al. Ochratoxin A: occurrence and recent advances in detoxification. Toxicon. 2022;210:11-8.
[15] Campi M, Dueñas M, Fagiolo G. Specialization in food production affects global food security and food systems sustainability. World Dev. 2021;141:105411.
[16] Khalil OA, Hammad AA, Sebaei AS. Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus ochraceus inhibition and reduction of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in maize by irradiation. Toxicon. 2021;198:111-20.
[17] Woldemariam HW, Kießling M, Emire SA, et al. Influence of electron beam treatment on naturally contaminated red pepper (Cap-sicum annuum L.) powder: kinetics of microbial inactivation and physicochemical quality changes. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol. 2021;67:102588.
[18] Ferreira CD, Lang GH, da Silva Lindemann I, et al. Postharvest UV-C irradiation for fungal control and reduction of mycotoxins in brown, black, and red rice during long-term storage. Food Chem. 2021;339:127810.
[19] Sirohi R, Tarafdar A, Gaur VK, et al. Technologies for disinfection of food grains: advances and way forward. Food Res Int. 2021;145:110396.
[20] Gonzalez AL, Lozano VA, Escandar GM, Bravo MA. Determination of ochratoxin A in coffee and tea samples by coupling sec-ond-order multivariate calibration and fluorescence spectroscopy. Talanta. 2020;219:121288.
[21] Shukla S, Park JH, Kim M. Efficient, safe, renewable, and industrially feasible strategy employing Bacillus subtilis with alginate bead composite for the reduction of ochratoxin A from wine. J Clean Prod. 2020;242:118344.
[22] Bui-Klimke TR, Wu F. Ochratoxin A and human health risk: a review of the evidence. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2015;55(13):1860-9.
[23] Zhai S, Zhu Y, Feng P, et al. Ochratoxin A: its impact on poultry gut health and microbiota, an overview. Poult Sci. 2021;100(5):101037.
[24] Lautert C, Ferreiro L, Zimmermann CE, et al. In vitro effects of ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone on cell viability and E-ADA activity in broiler chickens' lymphocytes. Pesq Vet Bras. 2014;34:1173-80.
[25] Wang G, Li E, Gallo A, et al. Impact of environmental factors on ochratoxin A: from natural occurrence to control strategy. Environ Pollut. 2023;317:120767.
[26] Paradells S, Rocamonde B, Llinares C, et al. Neurotoxic effects of ochratoxin A on the subventricular zone of adult mouse brain. J Appl Toxicol. 2015;35(7):737-51.
[27] Heussner AH, Bingle LE. Comparative ochratoxin toxicity: a review of the available data. Toxins. 2015;7(10):4253-82.
[28] Roncada P, Altafini A, Fedrizzi G, et al. Ochratoxin A contamination of the casing and the edible portion of artisan salamis pro-duced in two Italian regions. World Mycotoxin J. 2020;13(4):553-62.
[29] Heintz MM, Doepker CL, Wikoff DS, Hawks SE. Assessing the food safety risk of ochratoxin A in coffee: a toxicology-based approach to food safety planning. J Food Sci. 2021;86(11):4799-810.
[30] Ringot D, Chango A, Schneider YJ, Larondelle Y. Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of ochratoxin A, an update. Chem Biol In-teract. 2006;159(1):18-46.
[31] Almeida APD, Alaburda J, Shundo L, et al. Ochratoxin A in Brazilian instant coffee. Braz J Microbiol. 2007;38:300-3.
[32] Serra R, Mendonça C, Venâncio A. Ochratoxin A occurrence and formation in Portuguese wine grapes at various stages of matura-tion. Int J Food Microbiol. 2006;111:S35-9.
[33] Twarużek M, Kosicki R, Kwiatkowska-Giżyńska J, Grajewski J, Ałtyn I. Ochratoxin A and citrinin in green coffee and dietary supplements with green coffee extract. Toxicon. 2020;188:172-7.
[34] Klingelhoefer D, Braun M, Schöffel N, et al. Ochratoxin characteristics, influences and challenges of global research. Food Control. 2020;114:107230.
[35] Farbo MG, Urgeghe PP, Fiori S, et al. Adsorption of ochratoxin A from grape juice by yeast cells immobilized in calcium alginate beads. Int J Food Microbiol. 2016;217:29-34.
[36] Kizis D, Vichou AE, Natskoulis PI. Recent advances in mycotoxin analysis and detection of mycotoxigenic fungi in grapes and derived products. Sustainability. 2021;13(5):2537.
[37] Pena A, Cerejo F, Silva L, Lino C. Ochratoxin A survey in Portuguese wine by LC-FD with direct injection. Talanta. 2010;82(4):1556-61.
[38] Pleadin J, Staver MM, Vahčić N, et al. Survey of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A occurrence in traditional meat products coming from Croatian households and markets. Food Control. 2015;52:71-7.
[39] Fan K, Cheng X, Guo W, et al. Ochratoxin A in human blood plasma samples from apparently healthy volunteers in Nanjing, Chi-na. Mycotoxin Res. 2020;36:269-76.
[40] Hassan AM, Sheashaa HA, Fattah MFA, et al. Study of ochratoxin A as an environmental risk that causes renal injury in breast-fed Egyptian infants. Pediatr Nephrol. 2006;21:102-5.
[41] Turconi G, Guarcello M, Livieri C, et al. Evaluation of xenobiotics in human milk and ingestion by the newborn: an epidemiological survey in Lombardy (Northern Italy). Eur J Nutr. 2004;43:191-7.
[42] Kőszegi T, Poór M. Ochratoxin A: molecular interactions, mechanisms of toxicity and prevention at the molecular level. Toxins. 2016;8(4):111.
[43] Mounjouenpou P, Gueule D, Fontana-Tachon A, et al. Filamentous fungi producing ochratoxin A during cocoa processing in Cameroon. Int J Food Microbiol. 2008;121(2):234-41.
[44] Martins HM, Almeida I, Camacho C, et al. A survey on the occurrence of ochratoxin A in feeds for swine and laying hens. Myco-toxin Res. 2012;28:107-10.
[45] Zhang M, Zhang S, Guo X, et al. Fast, portable, selective, and ratiometric determination of ochratoxin A (OTA) by a fluorescent supramolecular sensor. J Hazard Mater. 2024;465:133104.
[46] Woo CSJ, El-Nezami H. Maternal-fetal cancer risk assessment of Ochratoxin A during pregnancy. Toxins. 2016;8(4):87.
[47] Schaaf G, Nijmeijer S, Maas R, et al. The role of oxidative stress in the ochratoxin A-mediated toxicity in proximal tubular cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis. 2002;1588(2):149-58.
[48] Lee HJ, Pyo MC, Shin HS, et al. Renal toxicity through AhR, PXR, and Nrf2 signaling pathway activation of ochratoxin A-induced oxidative stress in kidney cells. Food Chem Toxicol. 2018;122:59-68.
[49] Shin HS, Lee HJ, Pyo MC, et al. Ochratoxin A-induced hepatotoxicity through phase I and phase II reactions regulated by AhR in liver cells. Toxins. 2019;11(7):377.
[50] Cavin C, Delatour T, Marin-Kuan M, et al. Reduction in antioxidant defenses may contribute to ochratoxin A toxicity and carcino-genicity. Toxicol Sci. 2007;96(1):30-9.
[51] Marin-Kuan M, Nestler S, Verguet C, et al. A toxicogenomics approach to identify new plausible epigenetic mechanisms of ochra-toxin carcinogenicity in rats. Toxicol Sci. 2006;89(1):120-34.
[52] Boesch-Saadatmandi C, Loboda A, Józkowicz A, et al. Effect of ochratoxin A on redox-regulated transcription factors, antioxidant enzymes and glutathione-S-transferase in cultured kidney tubulus cells. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008;46(8):2665-71.
[53] Boesch-Saadatmandi C, Wagner A, Graeser A, et al. Ochratoxin A impairs Nrf2-dependent gene expression in porcine kidney tubulus cells. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr. 2009;93(5):547-54.
[54] García-Pérez E, Ryu D, Kim HY, et al. Human proximal tubule epithelial cells (HK-2) as a sensitive in vitro system for ochratox-in-A-induced oxidative stress. Toxins. 2021;13(11):787.
[55] García-Pérez E, Ryu D, Lee C, et al. Ochratoxin A induces oxidative stress in HepG2 Cells by impairing the gene expression of antioxidant enzymes. Toxins. 2021;13(4):271.
[56] Descamps-Latscha B, Witko-Sarsat V. Importance of oxidatively modified proteins in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int. 2001;59:S108-13.
[57] Beisswenger PJ, Drummond KS, Nelson RG, et al. Susceptibility to diabetic nephropathy is related to dicarbonyl and oxidative stress. Diabetes. 2005;54(11):3274-81.
[58] Coşkun C, Kural A, Döventaş Y, et al. Hemodialysis and protein oxidation products. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1100(1):404-8.
[59] Jonker JW, Merino G, Musters S, et al. The breast cancer resistance protein BCRP (ABCG2) concentrates drugs and carcinogenic xenotoxins into milk. Nat Med. 2005;11(2):127-9.
[60] Schrickx J, Lektarau Y, Fink-Gremmels J. Ochratoxin A secretion by ATP-dependent membrane transporters in Caco-2 cells. Arch Toxicol. 2006;80:243-9.
[61] Walker R, Larsen JC. Ochratoxin A: previous risk assessments and issues arising. Food Addit Contam. 2005;22(s1):6-9.
[62] Nogueira WV, de Oliveira FK, Marimón Sibaja KV, et al. Occurrence and bioaccessibility of mycotoxins in fish feed. Food Addit Contam Part B. 2020;13(4):244-51.
[63] Peraica M, Flajs D, Domijan AM, Ivić D, Cvjetković B. Ochratoxin A contamination of food from Croatia. Toxins. 2010;2(8):2098-105.
[64] Petzinger E, Ziegler K. Ochratoxin A from a toxicological perspective. J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 2000;23(2):91-8.
[65] Sekiyama BL, Ribeiro AB, Machinski PA, Machinski Junior M. Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone in maize-based food products. Braz J Microbiol. 2005;36:289-94.
[66] Al Ayoubi M, Salman M, Gambacorta L, El Darra N, Solfrizzo M. Assessment of dietary exposure to ochratoxin-A in Lebanese students and its urinary biomarker analysis. Toxins. 2021;13(11):795.
[67] Mitchell NJ, Chen C, Palumbo JD, et al. A risk assessment of dietary Ochratoxin A in the United States. Food Chem Toxicol. 2017;100:265-73.
[68] Varga J, Kozakiewicz Z. Ochratoxin A in grapes and grape-derived products. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2006;17(2):72-81.
[69] Walker R. Risk assessment of ochratoxin: current views of the European Scientific Committee on Food, the JECFA, and the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants. Mycotoxins Food Saf. 2002:249-55.
[70] Casas-Junco PP, Balois-Morales R, Ochoa-Jiménez VA, Berumen-Varela G, Bautista-Rosales PU. The toxigenic potential of phy-topathogenic fungi isolated from pineapple Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Var MD-2 associated with postharvest rot disease. Arch Phytopathol Plant Prot. 2024;57(10):722-35.
[71] EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM). Scientific Opinion on the risk for public health related to the pres-ence of mercury and methylmercury in food. EFSA J. 2012;10(12):2985.
[72] Khodaei D, Javanmardi F, Khaneghah AM. The global overview of the occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals: A three-year survey. Curr Opin Food Sci. 2021;39:36-42.
[73] Ismail A, Naeem I, Gong YY, et al. Early life exposure to dietary aflatoxins, health impact, and control perspectives: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2021;112:212-24.
[74] Maatouk I, Mehrez A, Amara AB, et al. Effects of gamma irradiation on ochratoxin A stability and cytotoxicity in methanolic solu-tions and potential application in Tunisian millet samples. J Food Prot. 2019;82(8):1433-9.
[75] Calado T, Fernández-Cruz ML, Verde SC, Venâncio A, Abrunhosa L. Gamma irradiation effects on ochratoxin A: Degradation, cytotoxicity and application in food. Food Chem. 2018;240:463-71.
[76] Kalagatur NK, Gurunathan S, Kamasani JR, et al. Inhibitory effect of C. zeylanicum, C. longa, O. basilicum, Z. officinale, and C. martini essential oils on growth and ochratoxin A content of A. ochraceous and P. verrucosum in maize grains. Biotechnol Rep. 2020;27:e00490.
[77] Popović V, Fairbanks N, Pierscianowski J, et al. Feasibility of 3D UV-C treatment to reduce fungal growth and mycotoxin loads on maize and wheat kernels. Mycotoxin Res. 2018;34:211-21.
[78] Shanakhat H, Sorrentino A, Raiola A, et al. Technological properties of durum wheat semolina treated by heating and UV irradia-tion for reduction of mycotoxin content. J Food Process Eng. 2019;42(3):e13006.
[79] Casas-Junco PP, Solís-Pacheco JR, Ragazzo-Sánchez JA, et al. Cold plasma treatment as an alternative for ochratoxin A detoxifica-tion and inhibition of mycotoxigenic fungi in roasted coffee. Toxins. 2019;11(6):337.
[80] Guo Y, Zhao L, Ma Q, Ji C. Novel strategies for degradation of aflatoxins in food and feed: A review. Food Res Int. 2021;140:109878.
[81] Pereira E, Barros L, Antonio AL, et al. Is gamma radiation suitable to preserve phenolic compounds and to decontaminate myco-toxins in aromatic plants? A case study with Aloysia citrodora Paláu. Molecules. 2017;22(3):347.
[82] Kumar S, Kunwar A, Gautam S, Sharma A. Inactivation of A. ochraceus spores and detoxification of ochratoxin-A in coffee beans by gamma irradiation. J Food Sci. 2012;77(2):T44-51.
[83] Refai M, Aziz N, El-Far F, Hassan A. Detection of ochratoxin produced by A. ochraceus in feedstuffs and its control by γ radiation. Appl Radiat Isot. 1996;47(7):617-21.
[84] Deng LZ, Tao Y, Mujumdar AS, et al. Recent advances in non-thermal decontamination technologies for microorganisms and my-cotoxins in low-moisture foods. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2020;106:104-12.
[85] Mehrez A, Maatouk I, Romero-González R, et al. Assessment of ochratoxin A stability following gamma irradiation: experimental approaches for feed detoxification perspectives. World Mycotoxin J. 2016;9(2):289-98.
[86] Liu R, Wang R, Lu J, et al. Degradation of AFB1 in aqueous medium by electron beam irradiation: Kinetics, pathway and toxicol-ogy. Food Control. 2016;66:151-7.
[87] Pankaj SK, Wan Z, Keener KM. Effects of cold plasma on food quality: A review. Foods. 2018;7(1):4.
[88] Luo X, Qi L, Liu Y, et al. Effects of electron beam irradiation on zearalenone and ochratoxin A in naturally contaminated corn and corn quality parameters. Toxins. 2017;9(3):84.
[89] Chu L, Wang J. Degradation of 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzoic acid in biological treated effluent by gamma irradiation. Radiat Phys Chem. 2017;119:194-9.
[90] Rifna E, Ramanan KR, Mahendran R. Emerging technology applications for improving seed germination. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2019;86:95-108.
[91] Falguera V, Pagán J, Garza S, Garvín A, Ibarz A. Ultraviolet processing of liquid food: A review: Part 2: Effects on microorgan-isms and food components and properties. Food Res Int. 2011;44(6):1580-8.
[92] Food and Drug Administration. Irradiation in the production, processing, and handling of food. Final rule. Fed Regist. 2012;77(112):34212-5.
[93] Garg N, Aggarwal M, Javed S, Khandal RK. Studies for optimization of conditions for reducing aflatoxin contamination in peanuts using ultraviolet radiations. Int J Drug Dev Res. 2013;5(3):408-24.
[94] Akhila PP, Sunooj KV, Aaliya B, et al. Application of electromagnetic radiations for decontamination of fungi and mycotoxins in food products: A comprehensive review. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2021;114:399-409.
[95] Byun KH, Park SY, Lee DU, Chun HS, Ha SD. Effect of UV-C irradiation on inactivation of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus and quality parameters of roasted coffee bean (Coffea arabica L.). Food Addit Contam Part A. 2020;37(3):507-18.
[96] Hojnik N, Cvelbar U, Tavčar-Kalcher G, Walsh JL, Križaj I. Mycotoxin decontamination of food: Cold atmospheric pressure plas-ma versus "classic" decontamination. Toxins. 2017;9(5):151.
[97] Ekezie FGC, Sun DW, Cheng JH. A review on recent advances in cold plasma technology for the food industry: Current applica-tions and future trends. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2017;69:46-58.
[98] Ten Bosch L, Pfohl K, Avramidis G, et al. Plasma-based degradation of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Al-ternaria species. Toxins. 2017;9(3):97.
[99] Ouf SA, Basher AH, Mohamed AAH. Inhibitory effect of double atmospheric pressure argon cold plasma on spores and myco-toxin production of Aspergillus niger contaminating date palm fruits. J Sci Food Agric. 2015;95(15):3204-10.
[100] Devi Y, Thirumdas R, Sarangapani C, Deshmukh R, Annapure U. Influence of cold plasma on fungal growth and aflatoxins pro-duction on groundnuts. Food Control. 2017;77:187-90.
[101] Laika J, Viteritti E, Molina-Hernandez JB, et al. Efficiency of cold atmospheric plasma under ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) regimes on the degradation of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in solid state and in spiked pistachio kernels. Food Control. 2024;159:110286.
[102] Mayookha V, Pandiselvam R, Kothakota A, et al. Ozone and cold plasma: Emerging oxidation technologies for inactivation of en-zymes in fruits, vegetables, and fruit juices. Food Control. 2023;144:109399.
[103] Loffredo E, Scarcia Y, Parlavecchia M. Removal of ochratoxin A from liquid media using novel low-cost biosorbents. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020;27:34484-94.
[104] Mohos V, Faisal Z, Fliszár-Nyúl E, Szente L, Poór M. Testing the extraction of 12 mycotoxins from aqueous solutions by insolu-ble beta-cyclodextrin bead polymer. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29:210-21.
[105] Ponzilacqua B, Rottinghaus GE, Landers BR, Oliveira CAFD. Effects of medicinal herb and Brazilian traditional plant extracts on in vitro mycotoxin decontamination. Food Control. 2019;100:24-7.
[106] Karaca H, Velioglu YS. Ozone applications in fruit and vegetable processing. Food Rev Int. 2007;23(1):91-106.
[107] Zhu F. Effect of ozone treatment on the quality of grain products. Food Chem. 2018;264:358-66.
[108] Mohammadi Kouchesfahani M, Alimohammadi M, Jahed Khaniki G, et al. Antifungal effects of ozonated water on Aspergillus parasiticus: A new approach to prevent wheat contamination. J Food Saf. 2015;35(3):295-302.
[109] Savi GD, Piacentini KC, Bittencourt KO, Scussel VM. Ozone treatment efficiency on Fusarium graminearum and deoxynivalenol degradation and its effects on whole wheat grains (Triticum aestivum L.) quality and germination. J Stored Prod Res. 2014;59:245-53.
[110] Piemontese L, Messia MC, Marconi E, et al. Effect of gaseous ozone treatments on DON, microbial contaminants and technological parameters of wheat and semolina. Food Addit Contam Part A. 2018;35(4):761-72.
[111] Li M, Guan E, Bian K. Structure elucidation and toxicity analysis of the degradation products of deoxynivalenol by gaseous ozone. Toxins. 2019;11(8):474.
[112] Sun C, Ji J, Wu S, et al. Saturated aqueous ozone degradation of deoxynivalenol and its application in contaminated grains. Food Control. 2016;69:185-90.
[113] Iacumin L, Manzano M, Comi G. Prevention of Aspergillus ochraceus growth on and Ochratoxin contamination of sausages using ozonated air. Food Microbiol. 2012;29(2):229-32.
[114] Qi L, Li Y, Luo X, et al. Detoxification of zearalenone and ochratoxin A by ozone and quality evaluation of ozonized corn. Food Addit Contam Part A. 2016;33(11):1700-10.
[115] Torlak E. Use of gaseous ozone for reduction of ochratoxin A and fungal populations on sultanas. Aust J Grape Wine Res. 2019;25(1):25-9.
[116] Jafarzadeh S, Hadidi M, Forough M, Nafchi AM, Khaneghah AM. The control of fungi and mycotoxins by food active packaging: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023;63(23):6393-411.
[117] Hossain F, Follett P, Salmieri S, et al. Antifungal activities of combined treatments of irradiation and essential oils (EOs) encapsu-lated chitosan nanocomposite films in in vitro and in situ conditions. Int J Food Microbiol. 2019;295:33-40.
[118] Qi X, Chen B, Rao J. Natural compounds of plant origin in the control of fungi and mycotoxins in foods. Curr Opin Food Sci. 2023;52:101054.
[119] Manzoor A, Yousuf B, Pandith JA, Ahmad S. Plant-derived active substances incorporated as antioxidant, antibacterial, or anti-fungal components in coatings/films for food packaging applications. Food Biosci. 2023;53:102717.
[120] Jafarzadeh S, Yildiz Z, Yildiz P, et al. Advanced macromolecular technologies in biodegradable packaging using intelligent sensing to fight food waste; A review. Int J Biol Macromol. 2023;224:129647.
[121] Mine Kurtbay H, Bekçi Z, Merdivan M, Yurdakoç K. Reduction of ochratoxin A levels in red wine by bentonite, modified benton-ites, and chitosan. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56(7):2541-5.
[122] Aguilar-Zuniga K, Laurie VF, Moore-Carrasco R, Ortiz-Villeda B, Carrasco-Sánchez V. Agro-industrial waste products as myco-toxin biosorbents: a review of in vitro and in vivo studies. Food Rev Int. 2023;39(5):2914-30.
[123] La Placa L, Tsitsigiannis D, Camardo Leggieri M, Battilani P. From grapes to wine: Impact of the vinification process on ochratox-in A contamination. Foods. 2023;12(2):260.
[124] Howard PC, Churchwell MI, Couch LH, Marques MM, Doerge DR. Formation of N-(carboxymethyl) fumonisin B1, following the reaction of fumonisin B1 with reducing sugars. J Agric Food Chem. 1998;46(9):3546-57.
[125] Scott P, Kanhere S, Lawrence G, Daley E, Farber J. Fermentation of wort containing added ochratoxin A and fumonisins B1 and B2. Food Addit Contam. 1995;12(1):31-40.
[126] Lee HJ, Li S, Gu K, Ryu D. Reduction of ochratoxin A during the preparation of porridge with sodium bicarbonate and fructose. Toxins. 2021;13(3):224.
[127] Lee HJ, Gu BJ, Ganjyal G, Ryu D. Reduction of ochratoxin A in direct steam-injected oat-based infant cereals with baking soda. Food Control. 2019;96:441-4.
[128] Lee HJ, Lee C, Ryu D. Effects of baking soda and fructose in reduction of ochratoxin A in rice and oat porridge during retorting process. Food Control. 2020;116:107325.
[129] Ryu D, Kowalski RJ, Ganjyal G, Lee HJ. Reduction of ochratoxin A in oats and rice by twin-screw extrusion processing with baking soda. Food Control. 2019;105:21-8.
[130] Lu Y, Clifford L, Hauck CC, et al. Characterization of fumonisin B1−glucose reaction kinetics and products. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50(16):4726-33.
[131] Fernández-Surumay G, Osweiler GD, Yaeger MJ, et al. Fumonisin B-glucose reaction products are less toxic when fed to swine. J Agric Food Chem. 2005;53(10):4264-71.
[132] Murphy PA, Hendrich S, Hopmans EC, et al. Effect of processing on fumonisin content of corn. Fumonisins Food. 1996:323-34.
[133] Gu K, Ryu D, Lee HJ. Ochratoxin A and its reaction products affected by sugars during heat processing. Food Chem. 2021;348:129038.
[134] Lee HJ. Stability of ochratoxin A in oats during roasting with reducing sugars. Food Control. 2020;118:107382.
[135] Yu J, Smith IN, Mikiashvili N. Reducing ochratoxin A content in grape pomace by different methods. Toxins. 2020;12(7):424.
[136] Manda P, Dano DS, Kouadio JH, et al. Impact of industrial treatments on ochratoxin A content in artificially contaminated cocoa beans. Food Addit Contam. 2009;26(7):1081-8.
[137] Nora NS, Feltrin ACP, Sibaja KVM, Furlong EB, Garda-Buffon J. Ochratoxin A reduction by peroxidase in a model system and grape juice. Braz J Microbiol. 2019;50:1075-82.
[138] Alsalabi FA, Hassan ZU, Al-Thani RF, Jaoua S. Molecular identification and biocontrol of ochratoxigenic fungi and ochratoxin A in animal feed marketed in the state of Qatar. Heliyon. 2023;9(1):e12835.
[139] Mwabulili F, Xie Y, Li Q, et al. Research progress of ochratoxin a bio-detoxification. Toxicon. 2023;222:107005.
[140] Santos J, Castro T, Venâncio A, Silva C. Degradation of ochratoxins A and B by lipases: A kinetic study unraveled by molecular modeling. Heliyon. 2023;9(9):e19921.
[141] Kupski L, Queiroz MI, Badiale-Furlong E. Application of carboxypeptidase A to a baking process to mitigate contamination of wheat flour by ochratoxin A. Process Biochem. 2018;64:248-54.
[142] Du G, Liu L, Guo Q, et al. Microbial community diversity associated with Tibetan kefir grains and its detoxification of ochratoxin A during fermentation. Food Microbiol. 2021;99:103803.
[143] Shehata MG, Badr AN, El Sohaimy SA, Asker D, Awad TS. Characterization of antifungal metabolites produced by a novel lactic acid bacterium and their potential application as food biopreservatives. Ann Agric Sci. 2019;64(1):71-8.
[144] Touranlou FA, Noori SMA, Salari A, Afshari A, Hashemi M. Application of kefir for reduction of contaminants in the food in-dustry: A systematic review. Int Dairy J. 2023;105748.
[145] Hassan ZU, Al Thani R, Atia FA, et al. Application of yeasts and yeast derivatives for the biological control of toxigenic fungi and their toxic metabolites. Environ Technol Innov. 2021;22:101447.
[146] Cecchini F, Morassut M, Saiz JC, Garcia-Moruno E. Anthocyanins enhance yeast's adsorption of ochratoxin A during alcoholic fermentation. Eur Food Res Technol. 2019;245:309-14.
[147] Söylemez T, Yamaç M. Screening of macrofungi isolates for aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A degradation. Biol Bull. 2021;48:122-9.
[148] Yang Y, Zhong W, Wang Y, et al. Isolation, identification, degradation mechanism and exploration of active enzymes in the ochra-toxin A degrading strain Acinetobacter pittii AP19. J Hazard Mater. 2024;465:133351.
[149] Gonaus C, Wieland L, Thallinger GG, Prasad S. Ochratoxin A degrading enzymes of Stenotrophomonas sp. 043-1a. FEMS Mi-crobiol Lett. 2023;370:fnad028.
[150] Domínguez-Gutiérrez G, Perraud-Gaime I, Escalona-Buendía H, et al. Inhibition of Aspergillus carbonarius growth and ochratoxin A production using lactic acid bacteria cultivated in an optimized medium. Int J Food Microbiol. 2023;404:110320.
[151] Mateo EM, Tarazona A, Jiménez M, Mateo F. Lactic acid bacteria as potential agents for biocontrol of aflatoxigenic and ochratoxi-genic fungi. Toxins. 2022;14(11):807.
[152] Lević S, Đorđević V, Kalušević A, Đorđević R, Bugarski B, Nedović V. Immobilised yeast in winemaking. In: Winemaking: Ba-sics and Applied Aspects. 2021:468.
[153] Yang Q, Dhanasekaran S, Ngea GLN, Tian S, Li B, Zhang H. Unveiling ochratoxin A controlling and biodetoxification molecular mechanisms: Opportunities to secure foodstuffs from OTA contamination. Food Chem Toxicol. 2022;113437.
[154] Kapetanakou AE, Passiou KE, Chalkou K, Skandamis PN. Assessment of spoilage potential posed by Alicyclobacillus spp. in plant-based dairy beverages mixed with fruit juices during storage. J Food Prot. 2021;84(3):497-508.
[155] Dini I, Alborino V, Lanzuise S, et al. Trichoderma enzymes for degradation of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A. Molecules. 2022;27(12):3959.
[156] Petrova P, Arsov A, Tsvetanova F, et al. The complex role of lactic acid bacteria in food detoxification. Nutrients. 2022;14(10):2038.
[157] Lyu Z, Ding S, Du D, et al. Recent advances in biomedical applications of 2D nanomaterials with peroxidase-like properties. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2022;185:114269.
[158] Ding L, Han M, Wang X, Guo Y. Ochratoxin A: Overview of prevention, removal, and detoxification methods. Toxins. 2023;15(9):565.

How to cite this paper

Advancements in Ochratoxin-A Mitigation: Occurrence, Toxicity, and Innovative Decontamination Strategies for Food Safety

How to cite this paper: Rahim Khan, Suhaimi Ab. Rahman. (2025). Advancements in Ochratoxin-A Mitigation: Occurrence, Toxicity, and Innovative Decontamination Strategies for Food Safety. Plant Physiology and Ecology, 2(1), 9-29.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.26855/ppe.2025.06.002